Early-life management routines are associated with behavioral outcomes in companion dogs: a cross-sectional study

Abstract

Early-life experiences are considered crucial for behavioral development in dogs, although the role of everyday management routines has received less attention than puppy socialization. To investigate the association between early-life management practices and behavioral outcomes in companion dogs, an owner-based cross-sectional questionnaire was completed for 79 dogs. Associations between early-life management variables and behavioral outcomes were evaluated using chi-square tests and multivariable binary logistic regression. Leash reactivity was the most common behavioral problem (48.1%), followed by noise sensitivity (35.4%) and hyperactivity (21.5%). Gradual habituation to solitude during puppyhood was significantly associated with lower odds of separation-related behaviors (OR = 0.062; 95% CI: 0.012–0.286; P < 0.001). Sleep management remained significantly associated with leash reactivity after adjustment for age and sex (P = 0.001). In contrast, early socialization variables showed weaker or non-significant associations.

Early management routines, particularly habituation to solitude and consistent sleep management, may contribute to reducing the risk of specific behavioral problems. These findings highlight the importance of integrating practical management recommendations with traditional puppy socialization programs.